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In classical Freudian psychoanalytic theory, the death drive ((ドイツ語:Todestrieb)) is the drive towards death, self-destruction and the return to the inorganic chemistry: "the hypothesis of a ''death instinct'', the task of which is to lead organic life back into the inanimate state".〔Sigmund Freud, "The Ego and the Id", in ''On Metapsychology'' (Middlesex, 1987), p. 380.〕 It was originally proposed by Sigmund Freud in 1920 in ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle'', where in his first published reference to the term he wrote of the "opposition between the ego or death instincts and the sexual or life instincts".〔Sigmund Freud, "Beyond the Pleasure Principle" in ''On Metapsychology'' (Middlesex 1987), p. 316.〕 In this work, Freud used the plural "death drives" (''Todestriebe'') much more frequently than in the singular.〔See occurrences of ("death drives" ) and of ("death drive" ).〕 The death drive opposes Eros, the tendency toward survival, propagation, sex, and other creative, life-producing drives. The death drive is sometimes referred to as "Thanatos" in post-Freudian thought, complementing "Eros", although this term was not used in Freud's own work, being rather introduced by one of Freud's followers, Wilhelm Stekel.〔''Freud and His Followers. Paul Roazen. NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975, p. 218.〕 The Standard Edition of Freud's works in English confuses two terms that are different in German, ''Instinkt'' ("instinct") and ''Trieb'' ("drive"), often translating both as ''instinct''. "This incorrect equating of ''instinct'' and ''Trieb'' has created serious misunderstandings".〔Otto Fenichel, ''The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis'', (London, 1946), p. 12.〕 Freud actually refers to the "death instinct" as a drive, a force that is not essential to the life of an organism (unlike an instinct) and tends to denature it or make it behave in ways that are sometimes counter-intuitive. The term is almost universally known in scholarly literature on Freud as the "death drive", and Lacanian psychoanalysts often shorten it to simply "drive" (although Freud posited the existence of other drives as well). ==Making of the theory: ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle''== (詳細は) with an avoidance of unpleasure or a production of pleasure".〔Freud, "Beyond the Pleasure Principle", p. 275.〕 Three main types of conflictual evidence, difficult to explain satisfactorily in such terms, led Freud late in his career to look for another principle in mental life ''beyond'' the pleasure principle - a search that would ultimately lead him to the concept of the death drive. The first problem Freud encountered was the phenomenon of repetition in (war) trauma. When Freud worked with people with trauma (particularly the trauma experienced by soldiers returning from World War I), he observed that subjects often tended to repeat or re-enact these traumatic experiences: "dreams occurring in traumatic have the characteristic of repeatedly bringing the patient back into the situation of his accident",〔Freud, "Beyond", p. 282.〕 contrary to the expectations of the pleasure principle. A second problematic area was found by Freud in children's play (such as the celebrated ''Fort/Da'' () game played by Freud's grandson, who would stage and re-stage the disappearance of his mother and even himself). "How then does his repetition of this distressing experience as a game fit in with the pleasure principle?"〔Freud, "Beyond", p. 285.〕 The third problem came from clinical practice. Freud found his patients, dealing with painful experiences that had been repressed, regularly "obliged to ''repeat'' the repressed material as a contemporary experience instead of...''remembering'' it as something belonging to the past".〔Freud, "Beyond" p. 288.〕 Combined with what he called "the compulsion of destiny...come across () people all of whose human relationships have the same outcome",〔Freud, "Beyond" p. 294 and p. 292.〕 such evidence led Freud "to justify the hypothesis of a compulsion to repeat - something that would seem more primitive, more elementary, more instinctual than the pleasure principle which it over-rides".〔Freud, "Beyond", p. 294.〕 He then set out to find an explanation of such a compulsion; and in Freud's own words, "What follows is speculation, often far-fetched speculation, which the reader will consider or dismiss according to his individual predilection".〔Freud, "Beyond", p. 295.〕 Seeking a new instinctual paradigm for such problematic repetition, he found it ultimately in "''an urge in organic life to restore an earlier state of things''"〔Freud, "Beyond", p. 308.〕 - the inorganic state from which life originally emerged. From the conservative, restorative character of instinctual life, Freud derived his death drive, with its "pressure towards death", and the resulting "separation of the death instincts from the life instincts"〔Freud, "Beyond", pp. 316 and 322.〕 seen in Eros. The death drive then manifested itself in the individual creature as a force "whose function is to assure that the organism shall follow its own path to death".〔Freud, "Beyond", p. 311.〕 Seeking further potential clinical support for the existence of such a self-destructive force, Freud found it through a reconsideration of his views of masochism - previously "regarded as sadism that has been turned round upon the subject's own ego" -so as to allow that "there ''might'' be such a thing as primary masochism - a possibility which I had contested"〔Freud, "Beyond", p. 328.〕 before. Even with such support, however, he remained very tentative to the book's close about the provisional nature of his theoretical construct: what he called "the whole of our artificial structure of hypotheses".〔Freud, "Beyond", p. 334.〕 Nevertheless, in later years Freud would build extensively upon the tentative foundations he had set out in ''Beyond the Pleasure Principle''. In ''The Ego and the Id'' (1923) he would develop his argument to state that "the death instinct would thus seem to express itself - though probably only in part - as an ''instinct of destruction'' directed against the external world".〔Freud, "Ego/Id", p. 381.〕 The following year he would spell out more clearly that the "libido has the task of making the destroying instinct innocuous, and it fulfils the task by diverting that instinct to a great extent outwards....The instinct is then called the destructive instinct, the instinct for mastery, or the will to power",〔Freud, "The Economic Problem of Masochism" in ''On Metapsychology'', p. 418.〕 a perhaps much more recognisable set of manifestations. At the close of the decade, in ''Civilization and Its Discontents'' (1930), Freud would acknowledge that "To begin with it was only tentatively that I put forward the views I have developed here, but in the course of time they have gained such a hold upon me that I can no longer think in any other way".〔Sigmund Freud, "Civilization and Its Discontents", in ''Civilization, Society and Religion'' (Middlesex, 1987), p. 311.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「death drive」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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